Changing Life of People (Social/Economic)

Production of food and products alike increased into what some historians refer to as the Consumer Revolution. These new developments happened most in the urban settings of northwest Europe and colonial cities in North America. New notions about self expression and individuality developed, as both the elite and urban poor classes began to wear similar styles of dress with a greater variety of dyes manufactured by enslaved Africans. Merchants in the eighteenth century also developed expert marketing techniques which increased demand of consumers.




Emile by Rosseau 

"We are born weak, we need strength; helpless, we need aid; foolish, we need reason. All that we lack at birth, all that we need when we come to man's estate, is the gift of education."
           -- Jean-Jacques Rosseau









1700

Common Meals


The style of dining included a large pot where family members would use to dip their spoons in. As more cutlery and a greater variety of dishes were generated as the eighteenth century neared, families ate with more communal utensils.

1700

Modest family homes
In the 1700s, family homes were modest with a few rooms, each serving multiple functions. For example, the same room was utilized for working, sleeping, and greeting friends. Nearing the eighteenth century, rents skyrocketed and it was difficult to maintain a larger space. As a result, families set up partitions for individual privacy.

Women's fashions
1700 - 1789(89 years)
Growth in fashion and the wardrobe
Choice of clothing went from bland to diverse— garments were often characterized with flamboyant colors and diversity. Regardless of class, fashion became a priority to everyone. Higher class people were often taken aback at the nicely dressed lower classes. This tied into the Consumer Revolution, which preached individuality through personal presentation and self-identity.

1750 - 1790(40 years)
Illegitimacy explosion
The main reason for an exploding number of illegitimate children was the increase of sexual activity among unmarried people. The numbers went from around 2% to eventually 25% babies being born out of wedlock as the eighteenth century neared.


1760
Call for children to be treated better
As a result of harsh child rearing, the Enlightenment movement encouraged the onset of tenderness towards younger ones. Various critics condemned parents who used corsets to mold waists of little children, and called for mothers to nurse babies themselves. One of the most influential works regarding child rearing was Emile by Rosseau.


Foundling Homes
1770
1/3 of babies in foundling homes
As a result of having illegitimate offspring, mothers often sent their young ones into foundling homes— synonymous to orphanages. Approximately 1/3 of mothers sent their children there, although around 50% of them died within a year.


Smallpox disease 
1800
60 million Europeans die from smallpox disease
Around 80% of the population was directly affected from smallpox. Smallpox was essentially the greatest affecting disease after the bubonic plague.


1840
36% of babies born out of wedlock

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Changing Life of People (Cultural/Intellectual)

Literacy Rates
Among the popular classes in the 17th and 18th century, literacy was rapidly increasing. The popularity of religious texts declined and people turned towards entertaining and practical literature. Within villages, stories remained mostly oral. Commercialism grew as towns and cities slowly started to offer more recreational opportunities for its citizens like blood sports, gardens, and fairs. 

Cornelius Jansen: "So, instead of spending my strength quarreling with the hand, I would strike for the heart of that great tyranny. "







1585

Cornelius Jansen, father of Jansenism born

Jansen emphasized “original sin” in contrast to the ideas of Jesuits, along with predestination. Jansenism was popular among the Catholic French, especially those of the urban elite.

1600 - 1800(200 years)

Increase in literacy rates of males

In England: From 20% to 50%
In Scotland: 90%

1635

Philip Spener, Father of Pietism born

Spener was born in 1635, and ended up being one of the biggest contributor to the movement of Pietism that started within Lutheranism.

Witch Trials
1682

France prohibits witch trials

The last witch was executed in the same year. Other European countries followed in the late eighteenth century as the social elite grew less fearful of the Devil and indifferent towards identifying witches.


1684
Jean-Baptiste de la Salle's Brothers Christian schools founded
By 1780s, the schools were bustling with success—the attendance was around 35,000 students across France.

1717

Prussia makes elementary education mandatory

The goal of this was to aid the reading of Lutheran scriptures and creating a better educated population to serve the state.

Forceps
1734

Invention of forceps

Forceps were handheld instruments used for grasping objects; as a result, surgeons from all over Europe started to seek lucrative new business. They often preached about the disqualifications of midwives and the superiority of their practices.

1757

"The Manual on the Art of Childbirth" by Coudray

Madame Coudray was a French midwife who scripted this widely known textbook. She trained village midwives to use better techniques and obtained royal funds for her campaign. She utilized life size models in her training sessions to teach those who didn’t know how to read.

1762

"Emile" by Rosseau

Rosseau sought to inspire mothers to learn better methods of parenting. According to him, it was exercise, fresh air, and natural dress.

Maria Theresa
1774

Compulsory education by Maria Theresa

Children ages 6-12 were required to go to school five days a week for five hours under Maria Theresa’s rule. This contributed to the increasing flow of education in Europe, and the emphasis on elementary education in the life of a child.

1776

"Common Sense" by Paine

In an informative pamphlet published at the beginning of the American Revolution, Paine presented the American people with an argument— to break free from oppressive British rule. To make his case to the people, Paine used common vernacular and biblical references in this groundbreaking literature.

First smallpox vaccination
1796

First vaccination

The first vaccination was by Edward Jenner (1749-1823), and performed on a farm boy against smallpox. Since then, Jenner published his discoveries in 1798 and this new way of treatment spread all over Europe as smallpox declined.

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The Expansion of Europe (Cultural/Intellectual)


Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations: "“It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self-interest. We address ourselves not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities, but of their advantages.” 


Horse-seed drill
1701

Invention of horse-seed drill


Invented by English innovator Jethro Tull, the seed drill sowed seeds into neat little rows which made for easier planting seasons.This enventually morphed into the invention of the horse-drawn hoe.

1776 "Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations" by Smith

 1800 
Medical knowledge and smallpox

Although medical advancements in the early eighteenth century did not reduce the numbers of those who perished, the invention of the smallpox vaccine eventually reduced them.

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The Expansion of Europe (Social/Economic)

Women spinning yarn in the cottage industry
In this time, cottage industry grew and became an important feature of the English economy. Here, peasants manufactured hand tools in their cottages. Urban capitalists were willing to employ many of them, as they would be paid wages way lower than those of urban workers. The putting-out system was the core of the cottage industry, where workers would process raw materials and then present the finished product to the merchant. Production became broken up into several stages as the industrial revolution grew in size. Rural manufacturing grew most rapidly in Europe, where around 50% of textiles were produced in the English countryside. By the 18th century, England was using the putting out system more than ever. Countries such as the Netherlands and Flanders developed these methods more slowly.
Oliver Cromwell
The British exercised commercial leadership in the 18th century. Enlightenment thinker Adam Smith and his ideas of mercantilism was a big influence in the way the British came into power, as they established a system aimed at expanding the power of the state. In an attempt to throw off the Dutch economy, Oliver Cromwell established the Navigation Acts where English goods could only be carried on English ships. This spawned a series of wars like the Anglo-Dutch wars and the War of the Spanish Succession. London soon grew into an economic power and Europe's richest city. England, on the other hand, needed to rescue itself from slow economic expansion. It did so by trading extensively with West Africa and mainland colonies in North America. By the 1770s, England reestablished its high economic position as it diversified and balanced its exports.
Oliver Cromwell: "A few honest men are better than numbers." 

The Spanish, another major player in European economics, bought Louisiana from the French in 1763. Silver production flourished again, despite its drop in the earlier seventeenth century. Spanish aristocrats developed "debt peonage" which was similar to the system of serfdom. Here, the one who owned the land -- a planter or rancher -- would supply the workers with basic resources and a little cash but enough so that the subordinates were always in debt.


1602

Dutch East India Company is formed

The Portuguese spice trade yields much control to the Dutch East India Company in the Indian Ocean. As a consequence, the Indian Ocean trade was drastically transformed. Once independent people, the Dutch oppressed them into dependents.

Oliver Cromwell
1651

Navigation Acts

Oliver Cromwell, in England, established a mercantile system which aimed to increase private wealth and military power. The acts required that goods be carried on British owned ships only. By that, British colonies exercised a virtual monopoly on trade. Also viewed as a form of “economic warfare” by getting rid of competition, the economically flourishing Dutch were initially targeted.

1672 - 1691(19 years)

Increase in guilds

In the city of Paris alone, the number of guilds went from 60 to 129 by 1691. The guild system predominated towns and cities, where its exclusive membership of urban artisans refused women, Jews, and many foreigners.

1700

English industry becoming more rural

As opposed to urban, the English industry became increasingly rural. The putting-out system was where the merchant loaned raw materials to those who worked under him and manufactured the raw goods in their homes before they returned it to the merchant. It grew slowly popular within continental countries.
Trade routes of the Atlantic Slave trade

1700 - 1790(90 years)

Peak of Atlantic Slave trade

With 6.5 million slaves shipped across the Atlantic, the conditions steadily grew more cruel as Africans were herded into the middle passage. Approx. 15% died from transit alone. The number of slaves being transported heightened especially as goods like sugar and cotton became high in demand.




Britain-France Maritime Wars
1701 - 1763(62 years)

Britain-France maritime wars

These wars decided which side would claim European land and profits gained during its expansion overseas, and who would retain the title as the leading maritime power.

1750

Distribution of English nails

English nail industry was being widely distributed to colonies thanks to flourishing foreign trade.

1760 - 1815(55 years)

Parliament movement to enclose land

Parliament passes legislation which calls for enclosed land; as a result, the population increased. The economic implications also included a market-oriented agriculture and a land proletariat. English and Scottish landowners grew competitive in their profits in renting out land to middle class farmers.

1784

Guilds abolished

Many eighteenth century critics deemed the guilds “outmoded” which inhibited technical processes and progressive thought. Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot, a reform minister, finally outlawed French guilds.






1789

Saint Domingue economic success

Saint-Domingue, or modern day Haiti, became the leading force in coffee and sugar production. With its five hundred thousand slaves, Saint-Domingue became the most productive colony within the New World.

1807

Parliament condemns slavery

Although the Parliament bans slavery, British slave trade remains prominent for decades to come within the Americas.

1870

Increase of farming yields

Although the number of workers on farms increased by 14%, farming yields increased by a startling 300% more food than that of the seventeenth century. The rapidly expanding European population was able to have their needs satisfied— the growth was helped by land enclosures.

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The Expansion of Europe (Political/Diplomatic)

Seven Years' War
Due to the Navigation Acts established by Oliver Cromwell, the targeted Dutch waged an economic war against the English. The British ended up taking over land owned by the Dutch in New Amsterdam, renaming it "New York." The French was the biggest rival of the English in the 18th century. France allied with Spain, which made it even more powerful, as it was already rich with a variety of resources. In the War of the Spanish Succession, the French and Spanish continued to join forces against the English in North America. After over a decade of fighting, Louis XIV was forced to cede some of his North American holdings, and Spain had to yield much of its West African slave trade, or asiento, to the British. The British strengthened their naval force during the Seven Years' War and this caused the French to lose the rest of their land in North America and India. The British had triumphed over a colonial empire.




Anglo-Dutch Wars


1652 - 1674(22 years)

Anglo-Dutch Wars

Along with the Navigation Acts, the Anglo-Dutch wars greatly impacted the Dutch economy— shipping and commerce. It was fought between the English and Dutch for sea trade powers. The second and third wars confirmed the Dutch position of leading maritime state for the seventeenth century.

1664

Establishment of New York

In the Anglo-Dutch wars when the British took over the Dutch colony in New Amsterdam, the land was renamed New York.

War of the Spanish Succession
1701

War of the Spanish Succession

It started when Louis XIV obtained the Spanish crown which was actually meant for his grandson. France and Spain joined forces against the British Colonies.

1713

Peace of Ultrecht

Louis XIV eventually surrendered his North American holdings and territory of the Hudson Bay to Britain. Spain let Britain have control over asiento, or West African slave trade, and allow Britain to annually send merchandise.

The War of the Austrian Succession map
1740 - 1748(8 years)

The War of the Austrian Succession

Frederick the Great of Prussia claimed lands from Maria Theresa of Austria. As other countries increasingly got involved, the war became large scale. The indecisive ending of the war led to the Seven Years War.

Seven Years War
1756 - 1763(7 years)

Seven Years War

Maria Theresa wished to regain Silesia and crush the lands of Prussia, and as a result, give the Habsburgs leadership in German affairs. The British military defeated the French led by Montcalm in Quebec, establishing its leading naval position. The French lost their land holdings on mainland North America, while British victory was ratified in the Treaty of Paris.

1763

Treaty of Paris

The British came to victory while France ceded its possessions in North America

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Scientific Revolution (Cultural/Intellectual)

Chart: Aristotelian model of the universe
From 1540-1690, scientific developments were at large. One of the trends of thought was "natural philosophy", in which its thinkers focused on the fundamental nature of the universe. Aristotle, a fourteenth century Greek philosopher, had many views which aligned with Christianity. For example, he believed that the universe consisted of heavenly celestial bodies which had perfect circular orbits. Later scientific thinkers like Ptolemy, Galileo, Copernicus, and Brahe slowly changed the old Aristotelian way of thought.

In the fourteenth and fifteenth century, philosophy was learned in universities along with medicine and law. Physics and mathematics became more popular afterward. Translations of old Arabic texts also helped spur the scientific revolution, as well as patrons who funded experiments and case studies. As the king of Portugal in 1484 met some navigational problems, he asked mathematicians to help seamen find latitudes.


Francis Bacon:

 "Imagination was given to man to compensate him for what he is not; a sense of humor to console him for what he is." 

"A prudent question is one-half of wisdom."

"Knowledge is power."




Nicolaus Copernicus
1506 - 1530(24 years)

Copernicus' hypothesis

Copernicus labored on his hypothesis in Eastern Prussia for many years, which stated that the sun, not the earth, rested at the center of the universe. He didn’t overthrow Aristotle’s preexisting theory of crystal spheres which moved in perfect circular motion or that the perfection of the universe was reflected upon its creator.

1543

"On the Revolutions" and "On the Structure of the Human Body"

Former was written by Copernicus, latter was written by Vesalius. Andreas Vesalius, through dissections, was able to accurately observe human anatomy.

1543

"On the Revolution of Heavenly Spheres" by Copernicus published

Fearing opposition, Copernicus waited until his death to display his theory to the masses.

Tycho Brahe
1572 - 1574(2 years)

New Star

Brahe studied the movements of the “new star”, an exploding one, which appeared and shone very brightly for about two years. The discovery of this star challenged the notion that the heavenly spheres were perfect.

1609

"The New Astronomy" by Kepler

Discussed new cosmo theory.

1616

Catholic church's official declaration that the Copernican hypothesis is false
Johannes Kepler
1619

Kepler's third law

The distance a body is away from the sun is the time that it takes to make a complete orbit.

1627

Completion of Rudolfine Tables

Kepler finished what Brahe started, and these tables were useful to astronomers for many decades to come

1628

Discovery of circulation of blood

William Harvey discovered that the heart worked much like a pump.

1632

"Dialogue on the Two Chief Systems of the World" by Galileo

As a result of this publication which openly challenged the views of Ptolemy and Aristotle, the Papal Inquisition tried Galileo for his heretic views.

1640

Kepler, Galileo, and Brahe's views accepted

They were officially accepted by the scientific community, while the Aristotelian ones were thrown out. However, at this point, there was still no explanation as to what controlled the movement of objects/planets.

Robert Boyle
1662

Boyle's Law

Robert Boyle, following Paracelusus’ footsteps, discovered that pressure varies inversely with the volume of gases.

1684 - 1687(3 years)

Newton works on "Principia Mathematica"

Utilizing math laws, Newton published his three laws of motion. He coherently synthesized views of Brahe, Kepler, and Galileo into a single model.

1690

"Essay Concerning Human Understanding"

Written by John Locke, this was the considered the first key text of the Enlightenment period. Instead of basing ideas off of deductive or empirical logic, Locke considered all humans to be born as blank slates, or “tabula rasas.” The surrounding environment eventually shapes and delegates the individual’s views and beliefs.

1697

"Historical and Critical Dictionary"

Pierre Bayle, a French Huguenot, formulated the view of “skepticism”. By this, he showed that nothing could ever be known for sure, or “beyond all doubt.”

Carl Linne
1735

"The System of Nature" by Linne

Carl Linne, a Swede botanist, believed the God organized plants into hierarchies. Scientists who followed his views eventually began to take on similar views about humans, and the investigation of the human race and its origin began.

1740 - 1789(49 years)

Salons

A wealthy class of women from Paris began social gatherings in drawing rooms (salons) and discussed many uncensored topics. Salon meetings encouraged people to think critically, and interchange intelligent ideas with others.

1748

"The Spirit of Laws" by Montesquieu

baron de Montesquieu advocated for a separation of powers within the government and “parlements” as defenders of liberty against despotism. His views greatly impacted future decades of thought, along with the US and French constitution.

1751

Encyclopedia by Diderot & d'Alembert

The two men wrote this mammoth book with a purpose to change the general “way of thinking”.

1762

"The Social Contract" by Rosseau

This publication reflected Swiss Jean-Jacques Rosseau’s views of popular sovereignty and human will. He rejected rationalism as a destructive force. His works influenced the future thoughts of democrats and nationalists.

1775

Philosophes

The French educated elite was known as “philosophes”. France was the hub of Enlightenment development, as French was the international language at the time, it held the biggest population, and the French elite was able to expand ideas to a larger pool of the well-educated.



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Scientific Revolution (Social/Economic)

As different rulers came into power, they had different views on serfdom and taxation. Catherine the Great, for example, freed nobles from taxes permanently as a result of the Pugachev rebellion. Emelian Pugachev, a Cossack soldier, gathered a rebellion which proclaimed no taxes and serfdom-- he failed and Catherine's laws of taxation became more strenuous. After the ruler Maria Theresa lost Silesia in the War of the Austrian Succession (1748), she desired to make her state more efficient. One of the reforms she made was the tax system-- she differed from Catherine in that she taxed people of every position, even the nobles. Joseph II, when he rose up to the throne in 1748, tried to abolish serfdom and mandated that peasants pay in cash to their lords instead of compulsory labor. He was trying to help the serfs, but the law took an opposite effect-- peasants did not have cash in hand to pay. Leopold II canceled Joseph II's legislation and peasants returned to their manual labor.


Map of Prussia / Silesia
1748

Silesian tax system revamped

Maria Theresa, dealing with the loss of Silesia, enacted reforms in her state to make it more sufficient. The entire tax system was redone— Theresa taxed some nobles who were previously exempt.

1770

Absolute authority of nobles

In the late 1770s, Catherine the Great of Russia granted absolute authority of nobles over their serfs. She continued to extend the privilege of nobles in terms of taxation and state service.

Pugachev's Rebellion
1773

Pugachev's rebellion

Emelian Pugachev, a Cossack soldier under Catherine the Great’s rule, attempted to establish himself as “tsar”. He abolished taxes and military service. Catherine squashed his rebellion successfully, though, and left no room for lenience in terms of serfdom and taxation.

1785

Nobles exempt from taxes

Catherine the Great, in response to Pugachev’s failed rebellion, granted nobles absolute control over their serfs. Nobles were no longer required to participate in state service or pay taxes. Her laws were extended into Ukraine.

Joseph II
1789

Peasants decreed to pay landlords in cash

Joseph II decreed that the peasants could pay their nobles through cash rather than labor. Both classes rejected this, as peasants did not have cash in their pockets in the first place.

Leopold II
1790 - 1792(2 years)

Leopold's rule, cancels the decreed tax pay

Leopold II, brother of Joseph II, canceled Joseph’s law that serfs needed to pay their lords taxes. The serfs returned to do forced labor.

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Scientific Revolution (Political/Diplomatic)

The major political conflicts were over issues like succession, serfdom, and breaking of diplomatic agreements. Rulers in this era often tried to follow "enlightened absolutism" when reforming their governments. The major players in political disputes were Prussia, Austria, and Russia. Frederick William I, at the onset, broke the Pragmatic Sanction which guaranteed Maria Theresa to take the throne, by invading Silesia. Prussian population increased along with its power, as Theresa yielded Silesian lands. Theresa joined forces with rulers of France and Russia to go against Prussia and divide up its lands-- this ended up being the Seven Years' War. As a result of the war, Frederick of Prussia reformed his bureaucracy. The nobility in Prussia enjoyed more privileges as they were major contributors to the army and state.

Catherine the Great was a ruler who especially tried to govern in an enlightened way. She emphasized domestic culture but more importantly reforms with her new law code with wishes to strengthen education and the government. Catherine stopped trying to reform the system when Pugachev tried to overthrow her unsuccessfully.

Catherine the Great
Catherine the Great: "For to tempt and to be tempted are things very nearly allied... whenever feeling has anything to do in the matter, no sooner is it excited than we have already gone vastly farther than we are aware of. "









Frederick II

 Federick II: "If my soldiers were to begin to think, not one of them would remain in the army."

1740 - 1780(40 years)

Reign of Maria Theresa


 1740 - 1786(46 years)

Frederick II reigns

Followed his father, Frederick William I’s footsteps

European War of the Austrian Succession
1740 - 1748(8 years)

European War of the Austrian Succession

Ruler Maria Theresa of Austria was forced to give up much of Silesia to Frederick of Prussia— he had turned against the terms of the “Pragmatic Sanction”, an agreement that guaranteed Theresa’s succession.

1756 - 1763(7 years)

Seven Years' War

Maria Theresa joined forces with France and Russian leaders to conquer and split up Prussia.

1762 - 1796(34 years)

Reign of Catherine the Great

Peter III

 1762

Peter III's rescue

Peter III calls off the alliance formed against Frederick.

1768 - 1772(4 years)

Catherine's coup

Catherine desired to partition Poland led to the disruption of power between Austria and Russia.



1772

1st partition of Poland

Emelian Pugachev

 1773
Pugachev's Rebellion
Emelian Pugachev was a Cossack soldier who attempted to get rid of taxes, army service, and serfdom. He was eventually executed, and Catherine's future policies never revolved around improving the conditions for serfs-- she gave nobles absolute control. 


1790 - 1792(2 years)

Reign of Leopold II

Partitions of Poland

 1793

2nd Partition of Poland


 1795

3rd Partition of Poland



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